Black-Box Testing

Nowadays, almost every company’s progress depends on the tenable software that helps companies come to terms with a better service provider. In this course, it becomes vital to give an overview of software performance to improve the quality and eliminate the tardy progress. Here, black-box testing can help you. 

What is Black-Box Testing?

It is a software testing method in which the functionalities of software applications are tested without being tempted to know its internal code structure, implementation details, and internal paths. Black Box Testing mainly keeps tabs on the input and output of software applications for the taking. And it is wholly based on software requirements and specifications. Hence, It is also known as behavioral or specification-based testing. Based on an analysis of the appropriate test basis, for example, use cases, user stories, requirements specification, business processes, or even the customer knowledge or common sense. 

Here are some black-box testing techniques you should go through to choose the best fit-for-you:

Black-Box Testing Techniques

1. Equivalence Partitioning

Equivalence partitioning (EP) is a comprehensive domain-oriented technique. In this technique, there is a given domain of some variables, which is divided into a finite number of nonempty subsets called equivalence classes or equivalence partitions. The intention is just simple: the partitioning should be done in a way that for any two values from the same equivalence class, the system under test behaves similarly. In particular, this means: if for one of these values the system fails, it should also fail for the other one. After partitioning the domain, it assures to test only one value from each partition.

2. Boundary Value Analysis

Boundary value analysis (BVA) is very much like EP---a domain-oriented technique. Also, it built upon the equivalence partitioning method. The initial step in applying the BVA is to perform the equivalence partitioning of a given domain. 

The difference between EP and BVA lies in the way in which we choose class representatives for the sake of tests. In the case of EP, we had to take up one arbitrary element from each class. Whereas in the case of BVA, we take up only the so-called boundary values of the identified classes. 

The idea of this method angles for the errors that often tarry on the boundary values of the domains.

3. State Transition Testing

The state transition testing method is used when we want to check the behavioural aspect of the system: its behaviour in time. The model for such tests is a finite state machine called a state transition model. This model presents the next feasible system’s behavior depending on its history (which is represented by the machine’s current state) and occurring events.

4. Use Case Testing

A use case specifies the performance of a system that associates with one or more actors resulting in an observable result of value to the actors. An actor is typically a user,

But, sometimes, it might be the other system as well. Well-structured use cases infer essential system or subsystem behaviors only and are neither overly general nor too specific.

There is no standard way to write these test cases. In practice, the use cases might have their structure simplified, for not always the full level of detail is required.

                  Summary of the black-box techniques

I hope this article will help you learn about Black-Box Testing and its techniques. We insist you comment on your experience with this article. And get in touch with us in case of any tentative queries. 

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What Causes Damage In The Human Body During an Electric Shock: Current Or Voltage?

Friends, neither voltage nor current can damage our body in case of an electric shock, or rather it seems to be a paradox because they both are interrelated. You may know that it's a combination of voltage and amperage that presage an electric shock.

 Furthermore, it's explicitly possible that a high amount of voltage can zap your hands away and eliminate massive harm from electric shocks, but a small amount of voltage with a high current can kill you. Thus, it’s a combination of voltage and current (especially with higher value) that causes a deadly electric shock. 

What's the amount of voltage and current that causes damage? 

It's a steady-state voltage up to 42.4V peak or 60Vdc, which cannot be considered hazardous in dry conditions.  

{Ref. to IEC 60950-1:2005}

And, it's as little as 5 to 10mA current that can start causing muscular damage; current above 100 mA can cause muscle paralysis, breathing disruption, skin burns,  possible ventricular fibrillation, and death.

{Ref. to Electronic Troubleshooting by Mc Graw Hill Education}

Also, the possible extent of damage by a particular combination of voltage and amperage depends on the amount of resistance of the body. For example, the lower the mass, the lower the threshold (limit of energy), and vice-versa. Other body variables include age, state of health, effects of drugs, skin characteristics, and even outward appearances sometimes.   

{Ref. to IEC 62368-1:2018}

Effects of Electric Shock on Human Body

When current follows through a human body, the hearts and lungs are interrupted, causing temporary or permanent effects. That can cause imminent death. One common condition is called ventricular fibrillation, which causes a disruption of the heart’s natural muscle rhythm and makes the muscle contract rapidly and randomly. Typically, this condition is of victims who experience household deaths as a result of the person’s heart triggering fibrillation.  

Safety Considerations

Hence, for engineers and users, before getting in touch with any electrical and electronic device while using or troubleshooting, it's become critical to abide by some general safety considerations as follows: 

1. Carefully read the service manual and other supplements. 

2. Always ensure the correct polarity of any equipment. Needless to say, incorrect polarity can cause the device to explode. 

3. Always try to eliminate the use of a chemical or spray near the electronic device. 

4. Follow the service manual recommendations for cleaning electrical contacts by using only solutions suitable for the device. 

For example, 90 percent isopropyl alcohol is often recommended for electronic contacts acetone with an application using a pipe cleaner, a cotton swab or, a comparable nonabrasive applicator. However, caution needs to be taken since this material can be flammable.

5. Always use a suitable high-voltage test meter, such as a digital voltmeter (DVM) with a high-voltage probe attachment.

6. When servicing devices, use a proper ground lead from the chassis ground and remove the test receiver ground leads first when completed.

7. When soldering, use a grounded-tip low-wattage soldering iron. 

8. Always keep the soldering iron tip clean and well-tinned.

9.  Avoid overheating electronic components when soldering.

10. To avoid the risk of electric shock, we can also use an antistatic product on the floor, like mats or ground bracelets. 

This short write-up is supposed to answer “What Causes Damage in the Human Body: Current or Voltage?” and “How Can We Prevent Electric Shock?”. 

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How Business can Survive in Covid-19 through Digital Marketing?

How Business can Survive in Covid-19 through Digital Marketing?

The internet is as crucial as oxygen, for almost everyone. And the people abode by the imminent utility of the internet, are catalysts in the business communities. 

Although a long time passed by, yet people can pay off by working on the internet through Digital Marketing.

What is Digital Marketing?

                 

We can positively expand our jobs by promoting our brands through the internet. It clinches several ways of doing that --- website advertisement, social-media advertisement, email advertisement, etc.

Promotion of brands through the internet called digital marketing. It is facilitated by social media platforms, emails, websites even in the pandemic.

How the Coronavirus Outbreak Affects Business?

In December 2019, some lethal viruses caused a disease, called Covid-19. It ferociously infected the whole world within just 3 months.

Gradually more facts elicited about Covid-19, such as rapid

evolving and contagious.

Since we have never borne on this, it was soon declared as an undiagnosed disease. In this situation, many prominent countries enjoined ‘LOCKDOWN’ to coop up Covid-19. Inevitably, the market affected that languished both large and small scale businesses.
On account of the lockdown, the supply chain deteriorated across the globe for businesses.

Business: it is an organization that employs people in their respective domains. It, specifically, makes money by accomplishing demand or supply or both. Actually, businesses hinge upon demand and supply, but due to Covid-19, these needs could not be scraped up that maimed businesses.

There are some more reasons behind a business could not ride out

Overwhelmed testing facilities:

 The crisis erupted in this way, none was prepared to circumvent it. Consequently, medical facilities in most of the countries crumbled. Hence, people in populated countries like India, China, etc. abated their needs to avoid cumbersome in medical facilities. People grudged to lash out so that they could salt away that detracted the manufacturing rate.

 Fear and Social Distancing:

Covid-19 infected and decimated a large number of people across the world. This hardship engendered panic in mankind. Cumulatively, Covid-19 obscured both supply and demand chain.

In the recession, all the organizations flamed out, and the supply chain impaired. They sacked their large number of employees due to less work and revenue.

Lockdown:

                             

In the event of the Corona crisis, many countries enjoined to maintain complete or partial lockdown. By which, only essential commodities ordained to circulate in the market. Thus, door-to-door sales, traveling, excursion were eliminated that plummeted countries' money circulation in the market.


Traditional marketing strategies:

Considerably, 'the traditional strategies' should also be ascribed for failure, which we are not narrowing down as yet for promoting products or brands.

Since a host of people still believe in all those strategies, which are antiquated.

                                   

 Long ago, when, to plow through the newspapers was an obligation.

Newspapers, handbills, leaflets, and billboards were the only sources for the brands or product promotions. These older advertising strategies are known as traditional marketing strategies.

Now, these needs are being replaced by electronic media where you can read the news, purchase things to your doorstep in a nip, using smartphones. By disseminating proper information to all, more people will assimilate these methods.

These were a few reasons behind a business that could not ride out.

Now,

There are different types of digital marketing

1. SEO (Search Engine Optimization):

 The working of SEO is to optimize the content, technical settings, and reach to the website. This term is attributed to top results on search engines. It attracts customers to the website regarding the services or products you provide.

 It has three subcategories, namely:

a) On-page SEO:

It focuses on pages to deliver the content as per intended keywords.

 b) Off-page SEO: It takes place off the pages to optimize your websites like off-page website description.

 c) Technical SEO: It pores over the backend of a website, for example, image compression, structured data, etc. that can increase the website's loading speed.

2. Content Marketing:

 It is the chunk of the website, in which the relevant content always engages the attention of the audience. It helps you to reveal digital marketing strategies. Quality contents always ensure the readers that the website is coming forth with valuable description. In this case, they can easily bank on the website's services.

3. Paid Marketing (pay-per-click): 

It refers to "sponsored results" on the search engine results. Promotion can be done by clicking through the promoting ads where The number of clicks rake in.

4. Social Media Traffic:

It is a plausible and postulated way of running businesses because people are enormously available on social media apps.

It promotes brands and products to drive relevant traffic by ratcheting up the brands and product awareness. Some social media platforms are Facebook, Twitter, What's app, etc. 

5. E-mail marketing:

It is used in promoting content, events to direct people towards the business's website. Providing, it must be trustworthy, relevant, conversational, and strategic for better business.

Now, businesses can be relied on and promoted through digital marketing through the involvement of large customers who can not stick around without social media.

All these digital marketing types are lenient to learn. It ramps up businesses for surviving in hardship.

Some well-known advantages of digital marketing:

1. Online selling and purchasing:

Online trading is an easy way to fulfill needs. Anyone can approach the site and compare the prices of products before making a deal.

It does not need physical interaction with any other. So, You can comply with social distancing, which will be not only equitable for you but also for others.

2. Time-saving:

You can easily access a website to purchase and sell from your home comfort that will economize on time.

3. High Quality:

 Owing to the accessibility of numerous websites, you can compare the quality and cost of the products. It will let you obtain an encouraging profit.

 4. Any time work:

 Even if you are a native or any place, all you need to do is have a device that supports the internet connection, you can access digital platforms to work. 

5. Cheap in cost:

Advertising your products on digital platforms is more economical than newspapers and handbills. You can start advertising products as per your budget, which is affordable. All in all, you do not need to invest much money.

6. Targeted Audience:

 Actually, you can contact the website according to the specific readers and audience choices. It dispels all the doubts over the marketing: will be sold or not. Since you have hired a targeted audience, they must buy products that will make you feel free from the marketing of your products.

The discourse will exhort you to know more about digital marketing that can be imbibed from the current situation. It much obliged us to be entrusted digitally for the better future that emphasizes work from home.

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Importance of Website Maintenance

                          

Importance of Website Maintenance

What is a Website?

A website is the collection of web pages that can be accessed through the internet. It can coalesce photos, texts, audio, and videos in its structure. The documents and data of a website are filed away in hosting servers that can be set out whenever required by browsing.

When we browse a website we get off a request to its hosted server for delineating the searched document. The communication with servers can go off by an address, which is called the IP address. Devices entail internet-connection features, are allotted with this address.

Note: There is a term --- content management, which is used in building and managing websites. It manages a website like a computer that even allows the website to build the codes by hand. 

An important part of a Website?

For creating a website, see about a domain name and hosting plan.

What is the Domain?

It is like an address wherein data is stowed away. The easiest way for browsing a website is to search by IP address, which is not possible for us to remember all IP addresses.

Hence, we chase websites down by name instead of the IP address. However, we get on the correct page.

The reason behind this is DNS (Domain name system), it construes the exact IP address of the website searched by the user. For example, if we search 'youtube.com' on Google. The DNS hunts out the IP address from the written name and allows for visiting the site. So, we need a domain name so that users could search the website by its specific name.

What is Web Hosting?

Web hosting is to rent a server to save up all your documents available on the website.

It stores all types of documents like photos, texts, audio, and videos through the internet.

Whenever we search for something, we indirectly request hosting servers to allow documents to display. Hosting can be rented from many platforms that provide hosting plans like Google, Godaddy, Hostgator, etc.

However, buying a domain name and hosting plan is not enough to bring in.

A decent revenue requires a lot of things to do including SEO, quality content, some software, which are counted towards website management.

Why Should we Maintain the Website?

For creating a website, we have to invest money in manifold ways, sometimes in

purchasing a domain or hosting plan.

In this event, it becomes necessary to scrape up from the website. Hence, we need to maintain websites for as long as possible to avail the intended profit.

30 minutes of investment in a week can enhance all following items on the website:

1.  Site Safety

    A) To maintain websites at certain intervals makes it secure against viruses. This security is concerned about some personal data that can be hacked by hackers where personal data will be revealed.

B) Maintaining the website keeps on updating WordPress, themes, and plugin software.

C) To maintain websites can prevent the intrigue of hackers, where WordPress and outdated software are the most targeted platforms.

D) Maintaining websites is making up all the deficiencies of a website
for eliminating malicious access.

2. The Smooth Operation of the Website

There is enormous competition in digital marketing, so you need to work on every aspect of the website. In this case, the website smoothness should be focused a lot, because a large number of visitors disappear, if the site is slow, videos are not being loaded, and links are not directing the pages.

3. User Experience

Maintaining your website as per the user's experience. It always mounts up the reputation, brand, and credibility of your website that drags more visitors to the site.

4. Speed

 The speed of the website diametrically grows upon shopping and online marketing. If a website's speed is slow and clumsy, the audience will abrasively shift from there even if they need shopping. All in all, your website should have adequate speed so that audience could be easily convinced to purchase products.

5. Unusable Features

 One more integral factor that is associated with the reputation of a website through working. If a visitor visits a page, but videos, photos, and plugin are not, explicitly, working. It will disparage the website's activities.

6. Amendment of Broken Links and 404 Error

 Maintaining a website also concerned with fixing up the broken links and 404 error, which is the most annoying thing on a website. It injures reputation because of an awful experience.

On account of maintenance, SEO can be emphasized, and errors can be attenuated.

7. Prevention from Damages to your Website's Integrity and Damage Your Brand:

This is a banal factor on every website to maintain. The grammatical errors, outdated content, keyword stuffing, unauthentic information should not be legalized by the website. Due to troubleshooting, all these disruptions can be rectified.

8. Google Will Prefer the website:

It gives off a cunning role that perpetuates the website under top results.  

Up-to-date management, no retired software, and no invalid links can compel Google to spin off your website and comes in at top search categories.

These are the overhauling chunks of a website.

How to Verify the Maintenance?

There are several ways to verify maintenance:

1. All the pages are loaded without errors.

2. Check, all the website software and plugin are updated. 

3. Check the obsolete content should be sloughed off from the website.

4. Ensure there are no such errors like 404 and broken links.

5. Check, there should not be any spammy comments on pages or posts.

All in all, digital platforms have overshadowed across the world.

Henceforth, we should take the necessary steps to update and maintain the website, or else gains will be curtailed. So, small efforts like website maintenance can let us achieve the intended profit. Barely, 30 minutes a week can ham the website up to perform well.

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What is IC?

What is IC?
IC stands for the Integrated circuit.

The integrated circuit is a complete electronic circuit that entails both the active and passive components fabricated on an extremely tiny chip of silicon: Active components are tube and semiconductor type components such as FETs, transistors, SCR and passive components are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

Journey of IC

The IC was devised in 1958. It, diametrically, commenced a modern age of electronics. It was first felt in the computer and digital field.

The germ of computers employed vacuum tubes. Vacuum tubes were replaced by the transistor. Since transistors had many advantages i.e. cheaper in cost, smaller in size, less power consumption, and reliable.

Third-generation of computers employed ICs. The use of ICs reduced computer size and increased computer reliability and speed.

An IC consists of quite small fabrication that can be only seen through a microscope.

Basically, IC chips and Discrete circuits (the circuit entails separately manufactured components, such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, etc.) employed the same manufacturing process but ICs fabricates all the components at a time.


Advantages of ICs

1. Extremely small size.
2. Remarkably lightweight.
3. Very less cost.
4. More reliable because of the elimination of solder.
5. Low power consumption due to the smaller size.
6. Increased operating speeds because of the absence of the parasitic capacitance effect.
7. Rich market availability.
8. Greater ability to operate at extreme temperatures.

Limitations of ICs

1. Individual component(s) cannot be removed. Therefore, the whole chip should get replaced if a component fails.
2. Limited power rating, it cannot be manufactured for over 10W.
3. Inductors and transformers cannot be fabricated on a chip. Namely, its connection participates externally.
4. Apprehensive handling as these cannot withstand rough handling or excessive heat.
5. Exterior connection of capacitor, it's neither convenient nor economical to fabricate capacitor exceeding 30pf capacitance inside the chip. Thus, higher capacitance is connected exterior to chip.
6. High-grade PNP assembly not acceptable.
7. The low-temperature coefficient is difficult to attain.
8. Difficult to fabricate an IC with low noise.
9. An oversized value of saturation resistance of the transistor.
10. Voltage dependence of resistors and capacitors.

However, the benefits of ICs over the discrete circuit far outweigh their limitations.

Based on the fabrication technique used, ICs can be divided into the following three types.

Types of ICs

1. Monolithic ICs

                    Monolithic IC in Can-type

Mono= single
Lithos= stone

Thus, the circuit is build of one stone or single crystal on which all the components are connected. This technology is helpful for ICs production at large scale and low cost.
It is used as AM receivers, amplifiers, voltage regulators, TV, and computer circuits.

However, Monolithic ICs have some limitations:
1. Low power ratings. It, typically, has the utmost power consumption of 1W.
2. Not rich isolation among components.
3. No possibility for the fabrication of inductors.
4. Only a little range of passive components can be used.
5. Lack of flexibility in circuit design.


2. Thin and Thick Film ICs.

         Enlarge portion of Thick-film IC

These devices are usually larger than monolithic ICs. Such ICs are generally employed when much power required than Monolithic ICs. In this, active components like transistors and diodes are connected as discrete components.

The discrepancy between Thin and Thick Film ICs isn't about their size but the method of deposition of the film. Both have similar appearances, properties, and general characteristics.

Thin-film ICs

Here fabrication is done by depositing conductive films on the surface of a glass or ceramic base. It embodies various components by means of depositing films. In order to produce capacitance, films are sandwiched of insulating oxide between two conducting films. Inductors pertain to the spiral formation of films. While transistors and diodes can also be produced by thin-film technology; but tiny discrete components are connected into the circuit.

There are few methods for producing thin films, vacuum evaporation within which vaporized material is deposited on a substrate contained in a vacuum. Furthermore, one process called cathode sputtering, atoms from a cathode made from the specified film material. These are deposited on a substrate located between a cathode and an anode.


Thick-film ICs

In thick-film ICs type, silk-screen printing used that establishes the desired circuit pattern on a ceramic substrate. The screen is endowed with many features like stainless steel, conductive, resistive, or dielectric properties. These properties are possible because of inks and stainless steel uses within the thick-film ICs. It also fired at high temperature in a furnace to fuse the films to the substrate. Active and passive components arrangement is the same as Thin-film ICs do. It, moreover, connects active components as tiny discrete components.

ICs produced by thick and thin technologies have advantages of a wider range, better tolerance, and isolation among components, greater flexibility in circuit design with high-frequency performance than monolithic ICs.

However, such ICs have some drawbacks of larger size, high cost, and incapability of fabrication of active components.

3. Hybrid or multi-chip ICs 

As the name infers, the circuit is fabricated by interconnecting a number of individual chips. These chips are widely used for high power audio-amplifier from 5W to more than 50W range.

It is basically known on account of its better performance than monolithic like Thin and Thick Film ICs. It's economical for less production and often used as a prototype for monolithic ICs. It can even be classified as bipolar active devices (BJTs) and unipolar active devices (FETs) as per their uses.

With each passing year, technology is advancing ICs frontiers. Now, components fabrication has been increased with a batter processing speed.

Whereby, ICs are classified as per the 'number of gates or circuits & components as per chip'.

1. Small Scale Integration (SSI): The area of SSI chip is 1sq. mm. It can contain less than 10 components and between 3 to 30 circuits per chip. SSI can be classified as both the linear and digital ICs.


2.Medium Scale Integration (MSI): It can contain 10 to 100 components and between 30 to 300 circuits per chip.


3. Large Scale Integration (LSI):  The area of the LSI chip is 1sq. cm. It can contain 100 to 1000 components and between 300 to 3000 circuits per chip. LSI can be classified as both the linear and digital ICs as per the mode of operation. It can also be classified as analog ICs because their inputs and outputs can take on a continuous range of values and outputs are generally proportional to the inputs. This IC is much less used than digital ICs. LSI is vastly employed in the military, industrial, and consumer applications as different reasonably amplifiers where an Operational amplifier is a remarkable form of LSI.

4. Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI):  It can contain more than 1000 components and more than 3000 circuits per chip.


Digital ICs are generally easy to replace with lower cost and better reliability. Approx. 80% of the IC market has been overshadowed by digital ICs. Digital ICs are widely employed in computers and logic circuits. Digital ICs like logic gates, flip-flops, clock chips, calculator chips, counter, memory chips, and microprocessors.

I hope the blog "What is IC?" helped you to know about IC and its type.

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